Arguments for and against vegetarianism Essay

What are the arguments for and against vegetarianism? Seeing animals running around filled with cuteness can bring a smile to anybody’s face. But knowing the fact that most of them will be taken away and butchered creates a number of arguments because some people would simply put this down as cruelty were as others would call it ‘meat.’ Over the past years more and more campaigns and protestations have been started. Talking to a lot of vegetarians I found that their reason for being a vegetarian was because they found it a way of living with avoiding every form of killing animals. That or they found it better for their health, as most cancer institutions will approve that vegetarians have a much lower rate of cancer. A lot of people have been found to say ‘what gives us the right to kill innocent lives, animal or non-animal?’ They believe animals have rights too. Many vegetarians, and especially vegans, also choose to give up the use of all animal products, including leather, fur, and animal products used in common household items and substances. Some say that killing animals for any reason is entirely unnecessary, while others argue that human beings are not meant to be carnivores at all, pointing to a human’s small canines, flat molars, long intestines and less acidic stomachs, all ideal for eating fruits (carnivores have larger teeth, shorter intestines and stronger stomach acids.) Many feel that all animals are creatures with emotions, feelings, and the ability to feel pain too. Moving on to the arguments against vegetarianism. First of all, not all vegetarians eat healthy. A great deal simply switch to avoid meat, but still consume large amounts of foods that remain â€Å"questionable.† These â€Å"lazy vegetarians† usually subsist on a diet of coffee, hard liquor, cigarettes, French fries, potato chips, pizza, ramen noodles and candy, with the occasional vegetable or two. One troubling aspect of vegetarianism, and specifically veganism, is that it can actually be inadequate and can result  in nutrient deficiencies. Particularly vulnerable are children, especially infants, who can fail to grow at the proper rate due to deficiencies of energy, calcium, zinc, Vitamins B-12 and D, amino acids and nitrogen in vegan diets. Animals would eat us if they were hungry, why shouldn’t we eat them? This is a question asked widely by meat eaters. And the fact is. It’s true. Animals would eat us. Moreover meat is a large part of the Westernised world. Some eat meat because they like it, and some do not because they do not like it. I find being a meat-eater that there is a food chain, that human’s and animal’s follow. For instance, Human’s eat animals and plants and Animal’s eat plants and other animals. People call eating meat cruelty and murder, and to back themselves up they come to ethics. Ethics is the philosophical study of right and wrong, good and bad; it is a critical evaluation of our actions and their possible or real consequences. They say we are human beings with unique rational minds capable of raising the question of whether killing is right or wrong and governing our behaviour accordingly; we are, in short, the ethical animals. Once again the question pops up. If we are called ‘ethnic animal’s’ then we should be able to decide between the wrongs and rights of our actions. If a majority of people think that meat eating is not wrong and should be able to take place without the criticising of vegetarians then let it be. To conclusion it is almost puzzling as to why people choose or choose not to include animal meat in their daily diet. It is also quite a debatable topic because each argument for and against vegetarianism can be disputed. At the end of the day the question revolving around will be, to be or not to be a Vegetarian? It really is a matter of choosing the alternative.

Price Discovery in Illiquid Market

| A synopsis on| Price Discovery in Illiquid markets: Do Financial Asset Prices Rise Faster Than They Fall? | | Submitted by:Dinesh MaharjanMBAe-Trimester VIG-one| 4/13/2013| Richard C.. Green, Dan Li and Norman schurhoff. Price discovery in illiquid market: Do financial asset prices rises faster than they fall. The journal of Finance. VOL LXV, No. 5, OCTOBER 2010| Submitted To: Kiran Thapa Portfolio Management and Security Analysis (Course instructor) Ace Institute of Management I. IntroductionIn OTC bond markets many investors face high costs of trade, and these costs appear to be related to the lack of price transparency. This journal studies the consequences this has for efficient price discovery. In the municipal bond market, unlike the markets for most consumer goods, dealers trade with retail customers as both buyers and sellers and as in consumer markets, in municipal bond market prices appear to â€Å"rise faster than they fall. This asymmetric price adjustment, referred to as â€Å"rockets and feather†, is generally understood by economists to be inconsistent with perfect completion between sellers.Sellers appear to exploit local market power due to the search cost of information that customers face and opportunistically delay the recognition of price movements in dealing with customers The report reflects the asymmetric price adjustment in a major OTC financial market using a comprehensive sample of all trades in municipal bonds over a 5- year period. The report focuses on how the dealers take advantage through manipulation of bond price. On average dealers are â€Å"buying wholesale† and â€Å"selling retail†, the asymmetric movement in prices benefits dealers.II. Objectives of Study * The main purpose of this paper is to study the price discovery in municipal bond. * To analyze How and why the price of the municipal bond rise faster than they fall (rockets and feathers) i. e. asymmetric price adjustment * Study the cross-secti on behavior of bond price with regard to macroeconomic news, treasury yield and how dealers exploit the opportunity of price asymmetry. * To study behavior of intermediaries with respect to price movement, bid-ask spread III. Literature ReviewGreen, Hollifield, and Schurhoff (2007b) show that that newly issued bonds exhibit some peculiar behaviors and high levels of price dispersion. As shown in Green, Hollifield, and Schurhoff (2007a), dealer purchase from and sales to customers are roughly in same value. There are a large number of bounds outstanding, but most individual bonds trade infrequently; intraday price variation can be large compared to movements in fundamentals (Green, Hollifield, and Schurhoff). Hence this paper employs only panel data methods and focus on transactions data aggregated at a daily frequency.Studies on the treasury market generally find that price react almost instantaneously to surprises in scheduled macroeconomic announcements, that the announcements tri gger abnormally high volume, and that there is little autocorrelation in returns after the first minute (Ederington and Lee ( 1993, 1995), Fleming and Remolona (1999), and Balduzzi, Elton, and Green (2001), Piazzesi (2005) studies the price reaction to the FOMC meeting statements and finds that the price response to surprises in these announcements is more sluggish, perhaps because of the qualitative nature of the announcements and their unexpected timing.Harris and Piwowar (2006) and Green, Hollifield and Schurhoff (2007a), investigate the cross-section determinants of dealer trading profits, but whether markups differ when prices are rising versus falling. If prices rise faster than they fall, as in markets for retail goods, then the markup should increase during market rallies by more than if it falls when prices are decreasing. Search costs have been used to explain price dispersion in OTC markets and hidden costs in financial services.Carlin (2009) describes how opacity in fina ncial markets can be interpreted as intermediaries imposing gratuitous search costs on consumers, and how this sustains monopoly profits in equilibrium. Green (2007) uses search costs to explain price dispersion and shows that even when intermediaries must compete for issuers’ business, the resulting monopoly rents can be sustained. IV. Data and Methodology The study of price discovery in the municipal bond market is conducted using data provided by Municipal securities Rulemaking Board (MSRB), a self-regulatory industry group.These data include all trades made by registered broker-dealers in municipal securities from May 1, 2000 to October 19, 2006. There are 1,615 trading days during the period. Trades are reported in 1,559,894 bonds. This paper applies a number of rule-based filters to clean the transactions data, eliminate bonds with missing observations, correct obvious clerical errors, and supply missing data items where possible and excludes a small number of trades on holidays and weekends. Most studies of the rockets and feathers phenomenon are based on data that are of high frequency on the time- series dimension.The municipal market, in contrast, involves a huge cross section but trading in individual bonds is relatively infrequent. Therefore this paper propose statistical models that aggregate all transaction in a bond at the daily level, and construct proxies for effective bid-ask spreads, half spreads, and yield spreads over comparable Treasuries. The study is based on empirical analysis which employed following set of explanatory variables and controls * Bond issue and issuer characteristics: Issue size, coupon, maturity in years, modified duration, indicator for callable, tax exempt and insured bonds. Indicator variables for the U. S. state of issuance and calendar year fixed effects. * Order flow variables: short-term rate, term premium, and default spread. * Controls for the average par size traded on a given day, or for the par size a nd the daily changes in the size of the trades used to measure bid, ask, and midpoint price/yield. To evaluate the impact that news events have on volume the regression analysis is conducted, whether the day saw the good bad or neutral news. Also conducted a cross-section regression of the daily change in the yield (price) against the surprise variable (news).To measure the underlying price movements, Lehman Brother’s Long Term Municipal Price Index is used to proxy for the market price level. Regression on markup on round- trip transaction against the change in the index over the period between the initial purchase and final sale is conducted. V. Analysis: a. Asymmetric price adjustment The asymmetric price adjustment is associated with opportunistic timing by the broker-dealers who intermediate trades in the market. The analysis shows that on the ask side of the market, where dealers are selling, prices rise faster than they fall.On the bid side, where dealers are buying, p rices fall faster than they rise. The profits on retail trades rise in rallies faster than they decrease when prices fall. This evidence suggests that dealers opportunistically delay recognition of movements in fundamentals. b.. The effect of macroeconomic news events on Price (yield) and volume: The regressions show that, while Treasury rates respond quickly to macroeconomic movements, municipal rates do not. Yield spreads also respond dramatically and persistently because the prce adjustment for municipals is so slow. It is found that the municipal yields (price) respond sluggishly to news.Also there is no effect in transactions volume in bond due to news impact. c. Implicit Half- Spreads and Asymmetric Price Adjustments To analysis how effective half- spreads respond to change in the midpoint, proxy for the bond’s value. When the midpoint of the bond rises, the average sales price less the midpoint (ask-side effective spread) is unaffected, but it rises when values fall. T hus, on the ask side, price rise faster than they fall. Similarly, the bid-side effective half-spread rises when prices rise, but is unaffected when price fall. Thus, the prices that dealers pat fall faster than they rise.In short, when underlying values move to dealers’ advantage, dealers quickly adjust prices up or down to maintain a constant profit margin. In contrast, when price movements decrease the cost of bond that dealers are selling, or increase the cost of a bond they are buying , dealers’ transactions prices are sticky. d. Asymmetric Yield spread Dynamics: Next analysis is the movement over time of yield spreads between municipals and Treasuries using a partial adjustment model. When the spread of the Treasury yield over the municipal midpoint yield is high, the municipal’s yield tends to rise and thus the price tends to fall.The reverse occurs when the yield spread is unusually narrow. The analysis shows that yield spreads widen faster than they shr ink. Alternatively stated, municipal price rise faster than they fall. e. Search costs and Asymmetric price dispersion: The analysis shows that within-day dispersion in the prices at which dealers sell to customers is higher when prices are falling than when they are rising. It is also found exact opposite for prices at which dealers buy from customers. Taken together, these findings suggest that dealers are exploiting search frictions on both sides of market.V. Conclusion Investor, financial intermediaries and regulators should concern regarding the consequences of limited transparency in financial markets. It is clear from the analysis that opacity in the municipal bond market affects the dynamic behavior of prices. Price discovery is slow, and price rise faster than they fall. Intermediaries appear to opportunistically time their responses to new information about fundamentals in the prices at which they trade with investors. The dealer markups on inventory positions increase fas ter when prices rise than they decrease when price fall.Implicit bid-ask spreads adjust slowly when they are relatively wide and adjust quickly when they are relatively narrow. Implicit half-spreads respond more quickly to price movements when this benefits dealers. Yield spreads relative to treasuries also adjust with asymmetric speed when they suggest that municipal prices should rise versus fall. In conclusion, these findings suggests that intermediaries benefit from the lack of price transparency and decentralization, and thus from the search costs imposed on investors, in the OTC market.

Critically evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of 'universal' Essay

Critically evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of 'universal' and 'contingent' approaches to human resource strategy. Give examples to illustrate your answer - Essay Example ies are facing increasingly complex and dynamic business environment necessitating change in their ways they operate in harnessing their resources including human resources. The main objective behind HRM is to ensure organizational success through its people (Armstrong, 2006). The paper aims at exploring the advantages and disadvantages of universal and contingent approaches to human resource strategies that are currently practiced. Caldwell (2004) argues that HRM is concerned with several policy goals to be listed as: managing people as assets to build competitive strength; aligning corporate strategy and HRM policies; creating a flexible organisation responsive to external environment; to promote more cohesive team working; creating a strong customer orientation; empowerment to workforce for self-management and learning; institute proper reward system to develop a performance-driven environment; enhancing employee commitment within the organisation. Companies attempt to achieve these goals either through universal also known as best-practice approach to human resource strategies or take a diversion from it and deploy contingent approach to human resource strategies depending upon the need or the type of business they operate. Universal or the best practice approach is based on the basic premise that adopting certain proven HRM practices will inevitably lead to superior organizational performance. For example, most firms in 1960s and 1970s and a huge proportion even today adopt a sophisticated selection and recruitment processes so that the best from the available lot is selected. Induction programme is also sophisticated providing necessary training to the recruits so that they can accomplish the task given to them. The appraisal system is quite coherent so that none has reason to complain. Workforce skills are allowed to develop such that they attain flexibility. Comprehensive and frequent communication to workforce is maintained. All employment terms and

Workplace Learning and Human Resource Management Essay

Workplace Learning and Human Resource Management - Essay Example Because of the continuous political, social and economic changes that are taking place within the external business environment, organizational learning is necessary to ensure that each employee is prepared and ready in terms of addressing business and non-business related problems that may eventually hinder organizational success and its overall performance. The nature of formal learning is based on curriculum (Module 1 - Workplace Learning and Human Resource Management n.d.). Usually, formal learning approach takes place within the four-corners of the classroom. On the other hand, informal learning is referring to incidental and unstructured learning which could take place anytime within the work environment (Levenberg and Caspi 2010; Rogers 2003). Therefore, one of the main differences between formal and informal learning is that formal learning is strongly supported by either educational or training institutions except for informal learning (Levenberg and Caspi 2010). Not everyth ing that the workers need to learn can be taught and learned from a formal workplace learning intervention. Given that each employee has the option to learn through informal learning, this report will identify and discuss the reasons why organisations can never or should never rely entirely on formal workplace learning. In conclusion, the learning and economic benefits associated with informal learning will be provided. Eventually, a list of recommendations based on the factors that could hinder the practice of informal learning within the work environment will be identified and thoroughly discussed. Reasons Why Organisations Should Not Rely Entirely on Formal Workplace Learning Limitations of Formal Teaching Techniques Learning that takes place within a formal learning environment normally applies a teacher-led type of learning process (Dillon and Maguire 2007, p. 168). Since a formal learning environment does not always give the learners the opportunity to learn through continuous interaction with other learners within the group, information gathered by the learners is usually limited in terms of fully understanding concepts and theories behind what is being taught in class. Likewise, learners within a formal learning environment may not have the opportunity to ask or be too shy to ask specific question pertaining to what is being discussed inside a formal learning environment. Another limitation associated with the use of formal teaching techniques

The purpose of this project is to better understand the effectiveness Term Paper

The purpose of this project is to better understand the effectiveness of the sling in hunting and combat - Term Paper Example Archaeologists give us a number of answers, one of which points to the use of sling. A sling may simply be explained to be an effective personal projectile weapon that was used in ancient times for purposes of protecting herds, hunting, and combat (York and York 2011: 56-59). Fundamentally, sling was used as a hand-on weapon that was fired by the use of the arm. Users loaded the sling with offensive pellets that included stones and clay. The carriers then spanned the sling in their arms till they felt they had gathered enough force or pressure in the sling before finally releasing it towards their enemies. A very popular story of the use of the sling is told in the story of David and Goliath, where we are told that David used a sling to project a stone against Goliath. There is a lesson learnt from slings here and that is, slings were very powerful weapons and once they were in the right hands, the size of the opponent or target was not a problem. As a shepherd, David was familiar wi th the use of the sling and so he succeeded. It is in this direction that this project is trying to find out how slings could be used effectively to accomplish hunting and combative missions even in today’s cotemporary world. Known history behind the sling Thanks to archaeologists, history behind the sling is fading no time soon. ... Again, history has it the use of sling can be traced to all continents of the world. Archaeologists today have, however, gathered more evidence on the presence and use of the sling in Europe and the Near East (Korfmann 1973: 33-37). What is even more beautiful among the role of the sling in world history is that up to date, the use of the sling are symbolically still in place in areas of the world such as Southern Africa, Pacific Island, Mediterranean and Andean cultures. The slings are used for traditional memorial contests, historical recreations and festival purposes. Much of the history also points to the reasons why the use of the sling started at all. In fact, the use of slings, though became very popular in battle, was not originally meant for that purpose. Knowing that man was basically living with wildlife in the forest in the days of old, the design of the sling was actually necessitated as a weapon for protecting man from carnivores and other dangerous animals that could a ttack them. The sling was found to be preferably for this course because it has the ability to swing its shot to chase the animals, most of which were very athletic. Materials and construction Even in the ancient times, the materials used in the construction of slings underwent a lot of changes. Generally, the weapon was inexpensive to make as its construction involved the use of readily available materials in the human environment. Basically, a sling was constructed to have a cord and a pouch. One ideal factor was that both the cord and the pouch needed not to be elastic. To this end, materials that were used in the construction included animal hide, flax, hair, hemp, plant fibers, sinew and wool. The ideal behind

Comparative study of coastal protection against flooding between Dissertation

Comparative study of coastal protection against flooding between management alignment, seawall and breakwater design - Dissertation Example The ministry of Agriculture, fisheries and food has estimated that if there were no defence in England and Wales, the annual average value of damage from flooding and coastal erosion would be of the order of nearly  £3 billion, with the existence defence, damage still occur but is of the order of an average  £600 million a year (Maff, 2000) which is still a lot of money. The method that this project is going to be written on will be base on not only one aspect but three, which are economic, environmental and technical issues. Generally the management of flood and coastal defense within a strategic framework encourages practices that avoid disruption to natural processes and which are sustainable in the long term (including adapting to climate change). The areas that this project is going to be based on or the approach strategically will be based on: †¢ Brief introduction to beach morphology †¢ The administrative framework for flood and coastal defence in England and Wales. †¢ Problems with flood and coastal defence policies. †¢ Management realignment †¢ Breakwaters structures from concept to design †¢ Seawalls structures from concept to design †¢ Assessment of the impact of coastal defence †¢ The long-term views; †¢ Innovation in seeking and developing solution; †¢ A comprehensive regard to impacts; ... n seeking and developing solution; A comprehensive regard to impacts; The government flood and coastal defence policy is aiming: ‘‘To reduce risk to people and the developed and natural environment from flooding and coastal erosion by encouraging the provision of technically, environmentally and economically sound and sustainable defence measures.’’(HOC, 1998). Which is ideally what this project is about. BEACH MORPHOLOGY A beach can be defined as a deposit of mobile sediments located on the area in between the sea and the dry land that are regularly interfered with by the daily hydrodynamic processes such as tides, waves and current and in most cases wind (Rogers, Et al, 2010). British beaches around the coastline can be grouped into four main categories which include (i) Shingle, (ii) Shingle upper-sand lower, (iii) Mixed sand and shingle and finally (iv) sand. All the beaches around the UK demonstrate a continuing evolution process and can be practical co nsidered to have began the transformation towards the end of the last Ice Age when the Sea levels were approximately 50-80 m lower than the present day measurement. A clear justification that the beaches are transforming from to time is the fact that during the Ice Age the UK beaches from South Wales to East Anglia of the Britain north were covered by an Ice sheet while presently north of this line, virtually all of the beaches are covered by thick boulder clay deposits laid down beneath the ice sheet (Rogers, Et al, 2010). In certain areas specifically along the south and the east coast of the UK the advancing sea came across and battered soft sedimentary rocks most which comprised of sand and gravels deposited in ancient geological periods and were parts shoreline as cliffs or coastal slopes. It is this

The Lungs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Lungs - Research Paper Example The lungs are composed of a substance which is light, porous, have a spongy texture and are highly elastic. The surface has many polyhedral areas. The lungs are heavier in a male than in a female; the left lung is smaller than the right one in order to accommodate the heart. The lungs can be examined in terms of an apex, a base, three borders (anterior and inferior) and two surfaces (Costal and mediastinal). Each lung is conical in shape and is divided into lobes by interlobular fissures. The left lung is divided into the left superior or upper lobe and the left inferior or lower lobe. The right lung is divided into the right superior lobe, the right middle lobe and the right inferior lobe. Each lobe is further divided into pyramidal bronchopulmonary segments: ten in the right and eight in the left one. The root of each lung or the hilum connects the lung to the heart and the trachea. According to Gray (1918), â€Å"the bronchus, the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary veins, the bronch ial arteries and veins, the pulmonary plexuses of nerves, lymphatic vessels, bronchial lymph glands, and areolar tissue enter and leave the lungs through the root†. The trachea, or windpipe, reaches the thorax and is divided into the right and left bronchi. In the lungs the bronchi divide into large ventral and small dorsal branches. The bronchi are divided into smaller bronchi and bronchioles. Each bronchiole further splits into two or more respiratory bronchioles connected to alveolar ducts which, in turn, are connected to a cluster of small alveoli or air sacs. The pulmonary artery, the pulmonary veins, and the pulmonary capillaries supply deoxygenated blood to the lungs and remove oxygenated blood. The bronchial arteries and the bronchial vein supply oxygenated blood for the nutrition of the lung itself. All these arteries and veins enter and leave the lung through the hilum, as do the lymphatic vessels of the lungs. Pulmonary nodes, bronchopulmonary nodes and tracheobronc heal nodes are present. The lungs are supplied with nerves from the anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses which have small ganglia on them. (Gray, 1918). The function of the lungs is to provide a continuous gas exchange between the inhaled air and the blood in pulmonary circulation. Oxygen is supplied and carbon dioxide is eliminated by exhalation. The exchange of gases takes place through simple diffusion: oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood and CO2 diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. This diffusion requires a concentration, or pressure, gradient. The concentration of oxygen in the alveoli is kept higher than in the blood and the concentration of CO2 in the alveoli is kept lower than in the blood by the breathing of fresh air into the lungs. This breathing mechanism is generated by the respiratory muscles: the exterior intercostals located between the ribs, and the diaphragm which is a sheet separating the thorax from the abdomen. During inspiration the interc ostals and the diaphragm contract, the dimension of the thoracic cavity increases, air pressure in the lungs decreases and becomes slightly negative as compared to atmospheric pressure. This causes the air to move from the atmosphere into the lungs. During exhalation the muscles relax, lung volume decreases, pressure in the lungs increases and air is exhaled. The surface tension on the walls of the alveoli caused by water molecules is reduced by the pulmonary surfactant produced by the lungs. The exchange

The effectiveness of pay for performance plan Essay

The effectiveness of pay for performance plan - Essay Example Not every employee is the same; therefore their preferences and motivating factors are as varied as their individual personalities. Utilizing, combining, and integrating the right compensation strategy in the corporate structure plays a critical role in maintaining employee motivation, retaining talent, and attracting high-performing candidates to the company. Although pay for performance compensation plans have always played an integral role in the compensation package of many companies there are a number of shortcomings related to the merit pay system. Traditional compensation models ignore the key emotional influencers that reveal an individual’s key motivating factors. According to a recent paper called â€Å"The Psychological Costs of Pay-for-Performance†, by Ian Larkin, Lamar Pierce of Harvard and Francesca Gino of Washington University, this working paper identify the psychological costs of how social comparison, employee overconfidence, and loss aversion are pri me determinants of the success and viability of individual performance-based compensation systems (Tighe, 2011). â€Å"Social comparison is the tendency of individuals to compare their pay vs. effort ratio with their peers and their expectations of their compensation to be â€Å"fair† based on these preconceived notions. As a result of this comparisons pay plan effectiveness or perceived fairness is often compromised. Individuals commonly judge the extent of other people’s work contribution based on what they can see and not on actual results. Consequently coworkers are often unfairly judged since the value or true extent of their work is performed off premises or behind closed doors such as with salespeople or executives. Although in the case of major CEO’s or star athletes for instance pay becomes a social measuring stick to which they compare against their peers, so pay becomes more closely tied to social factors and not necessarily economics. Employee overc onfidence is where individuals have the tendency to overestimate their own abilities and skill set therefore they are prone to accepting tasks above their capabilities. According to Larkin; â€Å"Psychologists and decision research scholars have long noted that people tend to be overconfident about their own abilities and too optimistic about their future."; "Recent research has shown that overconfidence is not as much an individual personality trait as it is a bias that affects most people"(Tighe, 2011). The authors elaborate that in general people tend to be overconfident in their ability to complete tasks that they tend to perform frequently. On the other hand individuals tend to underestimate their ability to complete tasks which they are not familiar with or seem too complex. Since pay-for-performance systems are based on the ability of individuals to pick and choose positions that they feel best matches their skill set, the misalignment between the individual’s percept ion of themselves and their true skill set can cause them to undertake projects or tasks that are beyond their capabilities (Tighe, 2011). Instead of pay-for-performance becoming a catalyst for increased organizational achievement and individual performance an employee’s overconfidence can cause them to underperform under pressure, increase general dissatisfaction, and can also bring about a

The Earth Energy-Balance Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Earth Energy-Balance - Term Paper Example According to a study in the United States, more than 200 million sources of air pollutions are added into the atmosphere every year which is equal to 1760 pounds of pollutants per person. For instance Acid rain is the major source of causing air pollution because it damages lakes, streams, vegetation and wildlife. Another major issue impacting the human lives is global warming because the level of carbon dioxide has exceeded up to 40 % since the year 1860. In the recent years over the 134 years, there has been the highest amount of temperature change. Southern and northern ice caps have been warming us for centuries but what will happen if these caps had melted? Therefore, the constant disappearing of plants, use of fossil fuels is the reason which causes the greenhouse effect. My design takes the environment into consideration and brings attention towards something that is very important to all the people in the world being carelessly neglected. There are many ways through which we can restore importance by ignoring our many habits. Most Americans feel that they have mastered over the nature and environment and they have a complete faith in technology. When they face the environmental crisis like shortage of gas and oil then they believe that â€Å"science will save us† but belief on technology’s role in environmental problems is highly premature because science is not the answer to every environmental problem.

Development of tourism in Scotland Essay Example for Free

Development of tourism in Scotland Essay For a country to be a successful tourist destination, the normal impression that anybody has is that the country must be easy to access, with modern means of transport and good communication, unlike Scotland. A small country located on the periphery of Europe, Scotland is characteristic of tartans, highlands, mountains, castles and bagpipes etc, and for long, poor accessibility and transportation persisted in the country. Nevertheless, Scotland is among the most successful tourist destinations. Many have tried to bring about development of tourism in the country. The Scotts, in particular, were worried that the country’s inaccurate historic description might taint its image as a tourist destination. But little did they realize that in fact, portraying the country in modern perspective could cause considerable harm to its established image, which attracted a good number of visitors. [Butler, Richard. Tartan Mythology. 1998. p. 122. The traditional tourist image of Scotland. ] Besides the residents, the country saw noteworthy visitors, who contributed, directly or indirectly to its tourism development. The visitors can be distinguished into three groups—those from the field of military and administration, those involved in scientific studies and those who were engaged in works of music, art and literature. All these three groups had different approaches towards development in the country. The group involved in military and administrative activities was not directly related to the development initiative. However, their work involved a lot of traveling within the region. In their journals and writings, the group brought to light the difficulty in traveling in the region and the need for improving the transportation system there. Also, the scientific visitors wrote journals that described the physical features of Scotland and emphasized its historical heritage, which in turn, attracted more visitors. However, the group that comprised authors, and those involved in the works of art and music, was which made a significant impact on the development of Scotland’s tourism. Their approach was the most dominant and certainly the most effective. The works of renowned authors like Scott, Dickens, Wordsworth, just to name a few, described the country as a place with a romantic appeal. They gave vivid accounts of the scenery, the landscapes, the chivalry of the people and the military expeditions, which helped the country to establish a powerful image as a tourist destination. Not to forget one more group that did much to popularize the country—the absentee landlords and their friends. They engaged in sports like shooting and fishing that also made the country very popular and a coveted tourist destination. However, when more and more people started indulging in these sports, they were called off and Scotland remained a limited small tourist spot. [Butler, Richard. Tartan Mythology. 1998. p. 123-125. The traditional tourist image of Scotland. ] The development approaches resulted in improvement in many areas in the country like better communication and transportation facilities, better accommodation arrangements for tourists and the preserving of its natural heritage and culture, the established image of the country. The biggest strength of the development approach in Scotland is the realization that the tourists consider the natural heritage of the country as genuine and they are attracted to it because of its originality, unlike other places that are meretriciously ornamented. Only Development of tourism in Scotland 3 those who tried to fiddle with the traditional image of Scotland and try to portray it modernly reflect a weak approach towards its development. [Butler, Richard. Tartan Mythology. 1998. p. 132-135. The traditional tourist image of Scotland. Yes, the rising participation in adventure activities like skiing and wearing the highland dress, along with the popularity of golf rising significantly, reflect acknowledging of policies to sustain its image. If I were to manage its development, I too would go in for preserving its natural heritage so that visitors could get a real taste of the place. After all, tourists do come to have a bite of the place they visit and their nothing like getting a real taste of it! Reference citations Chapter 7: Butler, Richard: Tartan Mythology. 1998. The traditional tourist image of Scotland, p122-139.

Research Into Paracetamol

Research Into Paracetamol The pharmaceutical industry was estimated to turnover 773 billion in 2008, however not all of this revenue was taken as profit; a significant cost goes into research and industry guideline compliance for products. With regards to new generic medications, proving bioequivalence is crucial to success, however necessary in vivo testing can be costly ((EMAMI). Drugs which meet a certain Biopharmaceutics Classification System criteria may be exempt from these expensive tests and may be permitted a biowaiver (2). This allows in vitro dissolution testing in place of in vivo plasma analysis. Paracetamol is one such drug that has qualities which place it at the borderline of biowaiver suitability (2). It is the worlds most commonly used analgesic (3), although the question arises as to whether all preparations as effective as each other? More specifically we ask, is there is any significant difference between the dissolution profile of paracetamol generics? This literature review is in prepar ation of experimental tests designed to ascertain if there is any difference in dissolution profile of eight PBS listed bioequivalent prepararations, and whether this difference may correlate to a clinical significance in such a common place drug, used by so many. Search Strategy All data was sourced through internet databases, i.e. Medline, Pubmed, and Cochrane Library. The search engines Google Scholar and UWA library were also utilized. Keywords included. KEY WORDS Paracetamol, acetaminophen, bioequivalent (therapeutic equivalency), Delayed-action Preparations, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Tablets, Drug Compounding, Chemistry, Pharmaceutical, Observer Variation, Dissolution, Metabolism, In vitro, Drug Content, IVIVC, In vivo, Bioavailability and Correlation. Once appropriate articles were sourced, citing and cited articles were also evaluated. Paracetamol History Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is one of the worlds most popular drugs for the treatment of pain and fever (3). It was first synthesized in 1878 by Morse, and was used clinically for the first time in 1887 by von Merring (3, 4). Paracetamol fell into obscurity shortly thereafter in favour of other chemically related drugs such as phenacetin (4). However, phenacetin was later found to be nephrotoxic, and the search for a substitute arose (4). In 1950, a study from Brodie and Axelrod rediscovered paracetamols suitable analgesic properties (3). Although, this drug did not experience widespread acceptance until the 1970s due to unfounded concerns about safety; but from then on, it became the most commonly used medication for pain (3). In many countries, such as the United Kingdom, paracetamol sales have exceeded those of aspirin since 1980 (3). Physicochemical properties Paracetamol or N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetamide, is a white crystalline powder with a melting point of 168-172C (Martindale). It is sparingly soluble in water, ie. one part of paracetamol is soluble in 70 parts of water at room temperature (2). It is also freely soluble in alcohol (Martindale) Paracetamol shows maximal UV absorption at a wavelength of 249nm and is reported to have a pKa of 9.5 at 25C (2). Pharmacology Pharmacokinetics (inc. therapeutic index toxicity) Pharmacodynamics Mechanism of Action The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol has remained largely unknown for some time (5-8). For years it has been thought to inhibit the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) in a similar manner to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, however definitive proof of analgesia and antipyresis being dependent on COX inhibition is still lacking (3). Recently, two independent groups have produced experimental data that has demonstrated that analgesia involves the potentiation of the cannabinoid vanilloid tone in the brain and in the dorsal root ganglia (3). Blockade of cannabinoid (CB1) receptors in rats has eliminated any analgesic properties of paracetamol and suggests that paracetamol is in fact a cannabinomimetic (3). Pharmacokinetics Absorption Bioavailability Paracetamol has been reported to have a bioavailability of 62%-89% in those of a fasted state (2, 7). This divergence from absolute bioavailability is attributed to first pass hepatic metabolism. Peak plasma concentrations are reached between 0.17-2.0 hours post-dosing (9). As expected, food has been shown to reduce absorption by increasing tmax and decreasing Cmax values. Food has not been shown to affect the amount of acetaminophen reaching the blood (2). Distribution Paracetamol has a reported volume of distribution of 0.69-1.36L/Kg (10). Around 20%-25% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins at therapeutic dosages, however this value has been shown to increase to 20%-50% in over dosage. Paracetamol has also been shown to cross the placenta, and has a 1.24 milk/plasma ratio in breast milk (2). Paracetamol is an ADEC category A drug, i.e. it is safe to use in pregnancy, as well as breastfeeding (8). Metabolism Excretion Around 85%-90% of paracetamol is metabolized within the liver via the process of glucuronidation and sulfation (2). These inactive metabolites are then eliminated by the kidney in the urine. Approximately 5% of paracetamol is passed out unchanged in the urine, the remaining drug is conjugated with cysteine and mercapturic acid (2, 7). The half-life of paracetamol has been reported as 1.9 4.3 hours (2, 7, 9) but longer in those with renal impairment. Indication Paracetamol is indicated in the symptomatic treatment of mild-to-moderate pain as well as fever (2, 8) and has also been described to have mild anti-inflammatory properties (2). Dose Dosage Forms For adults, the optimal single dose of paracetamol is 1g (2, 8), with a maximum dose of 4g daily (8). Hepatocellular necrosis can occur from doses of 10-15g, and death may result in doses in excess of 20-25g (2). Paracetamol is available in many dosage forms, as a single active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), or in combination with other analgesics such as codeine (Panadeine), dextropropoxyphene (Di-Gesic), metoclopramide (Metomax), as well as in combination with decongestants such as pseudoephedrine in cold-and-flu preparations (8). This drug is available as immediate release (IR) tablets, sustained release (SR) tablets, chewable, elixirs, IV injections and suppositories (8). Biopharmaceutics Classification system (subtitles ) Drug dissolution is an essential component in the absorption of any pharmaceutical tablet The Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) is a method of grouping active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) based on their solubility and intestinal permeability (reference? WHO, amidon, FDA, lobenberg, dahan). It allows for easy identification of those drugs whose in vivo absorption can be easily anticipated based on their in vitro dissolution. (many amidon) The system relies on the premise that drug dissolution, and therefore solubility, as well as drug permeability are the rate limiting steps in drug absorption. (amidon, rang + dale, goodman and gilman, dahan, WHO, FDA, lobenberg) This implies that two different products containing the same drug will have the same rate and extent of absorption if, over time, they both have the same concentration profile at the intestinal membrane. (amidon) Since it is the dissolution profile of a drug which determines its concentration profile in the intestinal lumen, comparability of this parameter in vitro should produce comparable absorpt ion results in vivo. (amidon) In reality however, only those drugs with high permeability which are formulated into immediate release (IR) preparations can be easily and reliably applied to this logic (amidon, BW, FDA). There are four classes within the BCS to which a drug can be assigned (as outlined in figure ?). Class I is comprised of those drugs with high permeability and solubility, these drugs are expected to be well absorbed and, providing dissolution is slower than gastric emptying, show a good correlation between in vitro dissolution rate and the rate and extent of in vivo absorption (IVIVC) (amidon, FDA, BW). Class II drugs also have high permeability but their solubility is low which ensures in vivo dissolution is the rate limiting step in drug absorption and thus IVIVC is expected (amidon). Class III drugs have a low permeability with high solubility, traditionally these drugs were believed to have little or no IVIVC (amidon), however recent studies have shown that if a class III drug is very rapidly dissolving then a correlation may exist (Cheng, Jantratid 1). Finally Class IV drugs have both low permeability and solubility these drugs are not expected to show any IVIVC (amidon). Figure ?: (http//www.tselinc) For each of the four BCS classes a drug substance is considered highly soluble when the highest [IR] dose strength is soluble in 250mL or less of aqueous media over the pH range of 1-7.5. (FDA) The permeability of a drug is considered high if greater than 90% of a dose is absorbed across the intestinal membrane (FDA, Yu). The genius of the BCS is that it allows easy identification of drug candidates for which relatively cheap and fast in vitro dissolution testing can replace the more expensive, time consuming and invasive in vivo absorption testing (emami). The system does away with complex modeling that must account for fasted and fed states as well as cyclical changes in motility and gastric emptying. (amidon, dahan) The impact of the BCS on the pharmaceutical industry was so great that in 2006, creator Dr. Gordon Amidon was awarded the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Distinguished Scientist Award. (internet reference) Correlation between in vitro dissolution and bioavailability Following the introduction of the BCS a great deal of research was conducted exploring the power of IVIVC. It became a main focus not just of the pharmaceutical industry but also of academia and regulatory authorities (emami). IVIVC became popular because it can be used as a substitute for resource intensive bioavailability testing; the concept has essentially improved the speed and cost of drug development as well as quality control in pharmaceutical manufacturing (emami). Bioavailability and Bioequivalence Bioavailability is an important concept because it determines the efficacy, safety and reproducibility of the therapeutic effect of drugs and the many formulations in which they come (TGA). For the purpose of drugs that produce a systemic therapeutic effect, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) (TGA) defines bioavailability as the extent and the rate at which a substance or its active moiety is delivered from a pharmaceutical form and becomes available in the general circulation. Bioavailability is therefore inherently linked to drug absorption and may also be predicted using IVIVC as defined by the BCS. If two pharmaceutically equivalent (same active ingredient and content in the same formulation) products have the same bioavailability they are considered bioequivalent and will essentially have the same efficacy and safety. Bioequivalence is important because it is the basis for which innovator medicines can be substituted with generics. Strength of in vitro in vivo correlations The BCS is a predictive tool for determining which drugs will have an IVIVC. Table ? demonstrates that under the BCS only class II along with some class I drugs are expected to have IVIVCs (amidon). Research subsequent to Dr. Amidons first BCS publication has generally upheld his initial findings however exceptions to the rule have been found. Table ?: IVIVC Expectations for Immediate Release Products Based on Biopharmaceutics Class (amidon) Class Solubility Permeability IVIVC Expectation* I High High IVIVC if dissolution rate is slower than gastric emptying rate, otherwise limited or no correlation II Low High IVIVC expected if in vitro dissolution rate is similar to in vivo dissolution rate, unless dose is very high III High Low Absorption (permeability) is rate determining and limited or no IVIVC with dissolution rate IV Low Low Limited or no IVIVC expected *A limited correlation means that the dissolution rate while not controlling may be similar to the absorption rate and the extent of correlation will depend on the relative rates. Drugs with IVIVC The BCS suggests that if the bioavailability of a drug is dissolution rate limited then a good IVIVC should be possible. This notion has been demonstrated for flutamide a very poorly soluble high dose compound which is not expected to have IVIVC but has dissolution rate limited absorption (posti). A paper published by Posti, Katila Kostiainen(posti) concluded that there is a strong IVIVC for flutamide and this was identified on four separate occasions where bioavailability was studied. All four studies were of single dose, cross over design and each subsequent study increased the number of subjects tested (study I: n = 6, Study IV: n = 24). The strength of the papers methodology provides good support for its conclusions however this was undermined by a lack of documented statistical analysis. Much more compelling evidence comes from a study by Sakuma et. al. (Sakuma) which was able to show an IVIVC for two BCS class I drugs after they received an enteric coating, thus eliminating the possibility that gastric emptying was the rate limiting step. The results were statistically significant however the tablets were tested in rat models rather than human subjects and the dissolution test may not have adequately reflected the in vivo environment that enteric coated tablets are subject to (Sakuma). Further study in human subjects demonstrating the difference in IVIVC between enteric and non-enteric coated tablets could not be identified in the literature. There are hundreds of other drugs which have an IVIVC and these are neither limited to BCS class II drugs or drugs with dissolution rate limited absorption. Theophylline is a BCS class IV drug and yet in a complete cross over study of four different theophylline tablets the in vitro dissolution was able to significantly predict several in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters (AUC Cmax) which dictate bioavailability (varshosaz). The study was small (n = 6) and not all pharmacokinetic parameters could be correlated. Other common drug examples with IVIVC include digoxin (shaw), rifampicin (pahkla), diclofenac (Jantratid 2) and lamotrigine (hiten) and these are by no means exhaustive. Drugs without IVIVC Not all drugs have an IVIVC and this can also include some BCS class II drugs. A research paper by Frick, Moller Wirbitzki 1998(frick) demonstrated that the in vitro dissolution of glimepiride (BCS class II) is not comparable to dissolution in vivo. The study employed a single dose cross-over design with 12 subjects, latin-square statistical analysis was employed and the results are assumed to be significant however not all the data was accompanied by supporting confidence values. No correlation was possible because the solubility of glimepiride is low and strongly pH dependent (frick). Unlike glimepiride ciprofloxacin, a quinolone antibiotic, is classified as a BCS class III drug and as a consequence would not be predicted to have an IVIVC. Correspondingly, when tested for this possibility none could be found between dissolution and any of the parameters for bioavalabilty (Tmax, Cmax, AUC Ka) (khan). Strength of BCS in predicting IVIVC There is a wide variance between IVIVCs that are anticipated according to the BCS and those that are actually demonstrated after experimental testing. Examples have been provided where both expected and unexpected correlation occurs and this suggests that the BCS system while helpful should only be taken as a guide. Laboratory testing is still the only reliable method for determining if a correlation is occurs. Paracetamol is a BCS class III medication and as such is not expected to demonstrate strong IVIVC. Given the fact that paracetamol has a wide therapeutic index and the BCS can only be used as a guide, a safe and useable IVIVC may still exist. IVIVC of paracetamol The prodigious use of paracetamol, vast quantities of the drug manufactured and the presence of many generic products in the marketplace makes it a prime candidate for IVIVC testing. In 1996 Retaco et. al.(retaco) conducted a small crossover study using five subjects to assess whether an IVIVC for paracetamol may exist. The study stated that the absorption data from saliva partially correlated with those found in vitro(retaco), however this is not a valid conclusion. One of the subjects studied produced in vivo data that opposed a correlation and this anomaly was further compounded by the fact that statistical analysis was not performed on the IVIVC but rather covered the in vitro and in vivo data separately. This pilot study was later verified retaco (word document) invivo bioequivalence but not invitro dissolution equivalent Babalola (word document) Cautious use of IVIVC Dominguez IVIVC but not bioequivalent Dont use IVIVC Biowaiver for bioequivalence testing In vivo bioequivalence studies are required to ascertain the risk of therapeutic inequivalence from potential differences in bioavailability. The BCS has outlined properties of solid preparations which require evaluation, i.e. solubility, permeability, and dissolution rate (11). In addition to this, the non-critical therapeutic range of a drug should also be considered (11). It should be noted that products produced by the same manufacturer at the same site are exempt from bioequivalence studies (12). Paracetamol BCS classification relevant properties. Several characteristics must be considered when a drug presents as a candidate for a biowaiver through dissolution testing. Paracetamol is classified as a BCS Class III drug, although it possesses properties which deem it to be borderline Class I (2). Characteristics relevant to the active ingredient Risk of therapeutic failure or adverse drug reactions i.e. the need for critical plasma concentrations. When considering a biowaiver for a drug substance, its therapeutic use and therapeutic index also needs to be taken into account (13). In the case of paracetamol, the therapeutic indications are not critical, and there is a wide difference between the usual therapeutic dose and toxic doses. Given that an optimal therapeutic dose for an adult is 1g, and that hepatocellular necrosis can result from ingestion of 10-15g, it can be assumed that acetaminophen is not a narrow therapeutic index drug (2). Risk of bioinequivalence: Previous evidence of bioavailability problems for an active substance can complicate the justification of in vitro dissolution bioequivalence correlation (11). For paracetamol, the absolute bioavailability has not been shown to vary between therapeutic dose ranges of 5-20mg/kg (2). Other studies have also demonstrated that bioequivalence in different IR paracetamol preparations is achievable (10, 14, 15). Solubility: If a drug is highly water soluble it generally lends to exemption of bioequivalence testing, however polymorphism and particle size are major determinants of dissolution and must be considered (11). A drug is considered highly soluble if the amount contained in a preparation of maximal strength dissolves in 250mL of three buffered solutions ranging between a pH of 1-8 at 37C (11). Paracetamol has a pKa of 9.5 and is therefore not substantially ionized at a pH less than 9. As a result, it can be said that its solubility does not vary with pH (2). The highest strength IR preparation of paracetamol is 500mg. Experimentally, his has been shown to dissolve in 21mL (2), which is significantly less than the 250mL that is required by the BCS guidances to prove solubility (11, 13). Pharmacokinetic properties: High permeability which is typically indicated by a linear absorption pattern, reduces the potential influence of an IR preparation on bioavailability (11). For paracetamol, the permeability is slightly below the cut-off value of 90%, i.e. one study by Stewart et al. (16) found permeability to be 80% once absorbed. This formally excludes paracetamol from being considered for a biowaiver, although extensions to BCS Class III drugs has recently been given more attention (17, 18). Characteristics relevant to the medicinal product Rapid dissolution: Dissolution profiles can be regarded as equal when more than 85% of the active ingredient is dissolved within 15 minutes (11). This comparison must occur between test and reference product in three buffers which with a pH range between 1-8, at 37C (11). Paracetamol tablets have been shown to dissolve within 30 minutes (14), however this rate does not satisfy BCS exemption standards. Excipients: Those included are to be well established and not in atypically large quantities. Kalantzi et al. (2) details a table of acceptable excipients which can be used within paracetamol IR tablet formulations which are considered for in vitro dissolution biowaiver. Manufacture: Critical parameters such as particle size and polymorphism should be addressed and documentation should be provided in the dossier that is submitted to TGA (11). Paracetamol has three metastable forms, the only commercially available from is the monoclinic acetaminophen as it is the most thermodynamically stable polymorph (2). From review of the literature, it can be concluded that in vivo bioequivalence testing of solid, oral IR paracetamol dosage forms may not be necessary. This can be justified given that a formulation can be shown to (2): Rapidly dissolve under USP guidelines Contain only the acceptable excipients, in usual quantities Demonstrates dissolution profile similar to reference product under conditions stated in USP guidelines Other drugs with biowaiver Other drugs have been considered for biowaivers, such as: acetazolamide, acyclovir, amitryptiline, atenolol, chloroquine, cimetidine, diclofenac, doxycycline hyclate, ethambutol, ibuprofen, isoniazid, metoclopramide, prednisolone, prednisone, pyrazinamide, propranolol, quinidine, ranitidine, rifampicin and verapamil (19). A biowaiver was deemed to be appropriate for all these drugs except for acetazolamide (20) and frusemide (21). Interestingly, both these reviews were performed by the same author. Statement of Purpose Aim hypothesis The purpose of the proposed study is to compare the dissolution profiles of allegedly bioequivalent IR paracetamol preparations listed on the PBS. In particular, comparisons between every preparation will be made, rather than a single comparison against a referent. We hypothesize that there will be no significant difference between the dissolution profile of IR paracetamol tablets when dissolved according to USP specifications. Methodology We propose to analyse the dissolution profiles of eight PBS listed bioequivalent paracetamol preparations, namely; APO-paracetamol, Chemmart Paracetamol, Dymadon P, Febridol, Panamax, Paracetamol Sandoz, Paralgin, and Terry White Chemists Paracetamol. Sixteen tablets of each preparation will be dissolved in compliance with USP dissolution test for tablets and capsules, using apparatus II. As mandated, tablets are to be dissolved in 900mL phosphate buffer at a pH of 5.8 with a paddle set to 50rpm. Samples will be taken at intervals of 2,5,10,15,30,45,60 minutes in concordance with practice by Dominguez et al. (22). These aliquots will be examined for paracetamol by UV spectrophotometry at 289nm. These data will be statistically analysed by ANOVA.